As is well known, the political system of the early Roman Empire is defined by the complex relationship between the emperor and the Senate. For both sides, it was a forced cooperation, which sometimes resulted in covert dynamics and, less frequently, open confrontations. Researchers have long studied (and continue to study) various aspects of this closest to the emperor – the soldiers of the Praetorian Guard. In the context of the political development of the empire, Praetorians are usually perceived as mere executors of the ruler’s will, a view that holds some truth, but mainly on a “large scale”. However, the dynamics within the triangle of “Senate – Emperor – Guard” are far more complicated. High-ranking members of the guard occasionally cultivated various types of relationships with senators, including those who opposed the emperor. In contrast, the lower ranks, drawn from diverse social backgrounds, often did not share the same political ambitions as their superiors. As a result, the Praetorian Guard has become a tangible factor in the relationship between the emperor and his primary political opponent, the Senate.

This article examines the diverse approaches taken by missionaries from various Reformation traditions in constructing and communicating their confessional identities to Chinese audiences during the nineteenth and early twentieth century. Moving beyond the retrospective and analytically unstable umbrella of “Protestantism”, it reveals how missionaries advanced competing projects of self-definition rooted in divergent theological claims, polemical engagements with Catholicism, and strategies of cultural adaptation. A noteworthy aspect of this endeavor was the quest for an appropriate Chinese term for “Protestantism,” which formed only a part of a larger discourse. The proliferation of labels – including “Religion of Jesus”, “Religion of Restoration”, and “Denomination Opposing Rome” – demonstrates how language served not simply as a tool of translation, but as an arena of confessional contestation and cultural positioning. The study situates these linguistic and theological strategies within the specific socio-political context of late Qing and early Republican China, characterized by imperial decline, legal pluralism, and shifting frameworks of cultural authority. Employing discourse analysis alongside the analytical tools of historical institutionalism – especially the concepts of path dependence, institutional layering, and the adaptation of inherited categories to new environments – it traces how European notions of post-Reformation Christianity were destabilized and reconfigured in the Chinese linguistic and intellectual field. Translation emerged as a process of negotiation, in which missionaries, local intermediaries, and Chinese observers collaboratively shaped and reshaped the boundaries of religious identity. The article argues that a seemingly stable category in Europe, however contested by historians, transformed in China into a fluid, historically contingent configuration. This transformation underscores the political and epistemic dimensions of religious classification in cross-cultural contexts and highlights that global Christianity evolved through processes of mutual interpretation rather than unilateral diffusion.

Accounts of the same event appearing in multiple sources are a relatively rare phenomenon for the Classical Middle Ages. Fortunately, the death of the Grand Prince of Rus’ Yaroslav Vsevolodovich at the Ordu of the Great Khan Güyük’s mother in September 1246 is recorded in the report of the envoy of the Apostolic See to the Mongols, John de Plano Carpini, and Russian medieval chronicles. This has led many historians to generally accept that he died from poison. However, some scholars challenge this interpretation, proposing that he may have succumbed to a food-borne illness and asserting that Russian sources are solely dependent on the news by the papal diplomat. They argue that a vassal in the Mongol Empire could only face punishment through a legitimate court. However, the study of independent sources on the history of the Mongol Empire demonstrates that the Chinggisids, using the scientific resources of the conquered peoples, had access to poisons and used them widely. Furthermore, reports of Yaroslav’s violent death surfaced in Northern Rus’ independently of Friar John’s narrative. Overall, a careful analysis of Friar John’s firsthand account reinforces the conclusion that the prince most likely died from poisoning.

This article examines the “treaties” that were either concluded or discussed by Russian diplomats who were sent to the headquarters of Turkic and Mongol-speaking nomads in northern Central Asia during the 17th and early 18th centuries, drawing on official documentation. The aim is to identify the individuals authorized to negotiate these “treaties” and to analyze their content. The findings contribute to a deeper understanding of the diplomatic culture of the Russian state during this period. The study specifically focuses on agreements that are expressly referred to as “treaties” 
(“dogovor”) in the source materials. It reveals that these “treaties” between the Russian state and northern Central Asian nomads were typically negotiated by Siberian servicemen. These diplomats, dispatched by Russian authorities on diplomatic missions, often lacked formal diplomatic rank. The “treaties” primarily addressed political issues, such as shert, yasak, amanat, the return of prisoners, and the cessation of raids, with some economic matters, particularly trade, occasionally included. In instances of confrontation, the “treaties” established a framework for peaceful relations between the parties involved. Importantly, these treaties were not formalized as independent acts and lacked ratification, reflecting the political goals of the Russian state and the comparatively low status of the nomads as negotiating counterparts, which led to simplified procedural requirements. 

The article explores the organization of charitable support for soldiers who were unfit for service in the monasteries of Belozerye during the 17th – the 1st half of the 18th century. In the 17th century, forms of assistance included noncontributory tonsure into monastic life, accommodations within the monastery funded by the monastery itself, and fi nancial support for retired personnel residing outside the monastic community. Peter I, in a course of both military and religious reforms, leveraged this established practice, designating the charitable support of veterans as a primary function of the monasteries. He issued several laws regulating the stay of retired warriors in monasteries. Under Empress

Customs books are the primary source for studying the history of domestic and foreign trade in Russia during the 17th and the 1st half of the 18th centuries. However, these documents have been preserved unevenly geographically and chronologically. The absence of customs books can be partially compensated by customs statements, which provide personal information about merchants along with details regarding their shipments, including points of departure and destination. The Russian State Archive of Ancient Acts houses 136 extracts from the Kursk Border Customs, which were forwarded to it from customs offices in other cities. An analysis of these documents reveals the geography of trade relations involving Kursk, one of the foremost economic centers in southern European Russia during the early to mid-18th century. The results not only clarify Kursk’s significance in the system of interregional trade relations but al so underscore the potential of customs statements as a valuable source for studying trade history. This analysis examines the geographical distribution of merchants who received statements, their travel routes, and the range of goods transported. The customs records indicate a notable expansion of the geography of Kursk’s trade relations by the early 1740s compared to the 17th century and the first two decades of the 18th century. Particularly noteworthy is the emergence of an eastern trade route passing through Kursk, highlighting the ongoing development of a unified All-Russian market.

In the article explores the history of self-government in Chita from 1860 to 1875, specifically in the period preceding the establishment of the City Duma. The insufficient study of the history of urban self-government in the prerevolutionary period hinders the effective application of historical insights for modern purposes. The purpose of this work is to determine the role and significance of the Chita Verbal Court within the urban governance framework. Grounded in the principles of objectivity and historicism, this research employs a variety of methods, including formal-legal and comparative approaches, to analyze regulatory legal acts. It draws from official documentation housed in the State Archives of the Transbaikal Region, with many documents presented in scholarly discourse for the first time. Although Chita became a regional center, it lacked key city-forming attributes and established municipal institutions. The findings indicate that the Chita Verbal Court, established in 1860, served as an administrative entity for the city. It was tasked with tax collection, assessing the commercial and industrial landscape of Chita, and overseeing river navigation. The article highlights that the merchant bourgeoisie exhibited minimal interest in city administration, often seeking to avoid participation in elections. The obligation of public duties became burdensome due to the re peated elections of the same individuals. Nonetheless, the activities of the Verbal Court were not significantly affected by this reluctance to engage in public responsibilities. Over time, its economic functions expanded, reflecting increasing demand and effectiveness within its scope. The public initiatives of the Verbal Court laid a crucial foundation for the future development of self-government in Chita.

The article delves into the development of the education system in Turkestan during the late 19th and early 20th centuries in context of the region’s integration into the Russian Empire. It focuses on the establishment of the Education Department in 1875, which was tasked with organizing schools for Russian settlers and overseeing local Muslim educational institutions. The analysis highlights the challenges of implementing Russian-language instruction and secular curricula into predominantly Muslim communities, where traditional madrasas and maktabs operated in Arabic script and emphasized religious teaching. The article discusses governmental efforts to regulate and expand educational facilities, including the establishment of inspectorates for public schools, legislative initiatives, and plans to enhance teacher training and salaries. Furthermore, it also considers the complex dynamics between imperial authorities and local populations, emphasizing concerns over cultural preservation and religious identity. Policies aiming to integrate Muslim students into a broader imperial educational framework often conflicted with traditional practices, leading to resistance and tensions. The study underscores the importance of balancing state interests with regional cultural realities, highlighting how education served as a tool for both modernization and control. Overall, the article provides a comprehensive overview of the evolving educational landscape in Turkestan during this period, illustrating how imperial policies shaped local educational practices while attempting to foster loyalty and social cohesion within a diverse region.

The article examines the evolving status of Alma-Ata in the political and geographical landscape of the USSR and Kazakh autonomy during the 1930s. It presents a comparative analysis of the city’s roles as both a capital and are gimecity, particularly in light of Alma-Ata’s designation as the capital of autonomy and the initial phase of implementing the passport system in the USSR. In addition, the article offers data on the city’s growth and population increase, largely attributed to migration. It argues that the introduction of the passport system in 1933 and the establishment of Alma-Ata as a regime city in 1938 facilitated the enforcement of a passport regime. This enabled various campaigns to evict specific groups from the city and to relocate individuals living in unauthorized structures along the city’s perimeter. Ultimately, the conclusion underscores that, despite its designation as an autonomous capital, Alma-Ata – Central Asia’s largest city – remained peripheral to the central authority. This is evident in the gradual rollout of the passport system, the prolonged absence of a special regime city status, and the discrepancy between Al ma-Ata’s actual standing and its expected prominence as one of the capitals of the Soviet Union’s national republics. Nevertheless, the establishment of regime status in the late 1930s serves as a testament to Alma-Ata’s emerging role as a political center.

The article examines a handwritten autobiographical work titled “The Notes, or a Journal Kept by State Councilor Ivan Tsebrikov from 1768 Regarding the Beginning of the Russo-Turkish War between Russia and the Ottoman Porte, about the Crimea and the Four Nogai Hordes, and Other Things”. The author, Ivan Maksimovich Tsebrikov, served as a collegiate registrar and worked in the regimental chancellery of Count P. A. Rumyantsev-Zadunaisky. As an eyewitness and participant in the Russo-Turkish War of 1768–1774 and the events surrounding the Russian Empire’s annexation of Crimea, I. M. Tsebrikov provides a detailed account of his experiences. This study presents a previously unknown version of the work, preserved in the State Historical Museum (SHM), alongside a corresponding copy in the Archive of the Foreign Policy of the Russian Empire (AFPRE). The objective of the research is to clarify the nature of the relationship between the two texts: whether they are copies of a single work, two editions, or entirely independ ent literary pieces. A codicological and textual comparison of the two manuscripts indicates that they are simultaneous authorial editions intended for different audiences. The manuscript from the AFPRE is regarded as the official version created for the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, while the “Notes...” from the SHM were directed toward descendants and include portraits of the Tsebrikov brothers set against the backdrop of significant national events. The “Notes…” of I. M. Tsebrikov represent a remarkable instance in Russian memoir literature from the late 18th to the early 19th century, showcasing two simultaneous authorial editions of the exact text.

This article examines the Siberian Diary of Enomoto Takeaki, an essential figure in the 19th-century Japanese diplomacy, as a source for understanding Siberia’s socio-economic landscape and the evolution of Russian-Japanese relations. Following his successful negotiation of the 1875 Treaty of St. Petersburg which resolved territorial dispute between Russia and Japan by exchanging Sakhalin for the Kuril Islands, Enomoto embarked on an overland journey from Tsarskoye Selo (near St. Petersburg) to Vladivostok in July – September of 1878. During this trip, he kept travel records named the Siberian Diary, which provides an eyewitness perspective on a region rarely documented by Japanese observers. The diary contains details on several key areas. Among them, there are economic activities (gold mining technologies and production); social observations, such as ethnic composition of Russia population (for instance, Tatars and Buryats) and the penal exile system. The diary also analyzes political and military structures, assessing garrison strengths and noting the situation along the Russian-Chinese border. The Siberian Diary combines the traditional Japanese literary genre of travel writing with practical intelligence-gathering objectives. Enomoto intended both to identify potential technological innovations for Japan’s development and to familiarize Japanese readers with Russian society. The diary was first published in 1934 and until this day was not translated into foreign languages, resulting in its limited examination within academic literature. The document represents a pioneering achievement in the direct Japanese engagement with Russia. It can be used as a resource for scholars of the Siberian history and cross-cultural perception.